BriannyaMia

Blu-ray and HD-DVD are rival incompatible formats, a situation that
recalls the Beta vs. VHS battle that stifled the early growth of the
VCR and home video market in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Despite an
attempt to unify the two standards in 2005, the corporate godfathers of
the two formats–Sony for Blu-ray and Toshiba for HD-DVD–failed to
come to an agreement.

What that means to you is that no Blu-ray player will be able
to play HD-DVD discs, and no HD-DVD player can play Blu-ray discs. If a
movie comes out in one format, there’s no guarantee that it will be
available in the other. Certain studios could release movies in both
formats, but you’ll still have to be careful not to buy the wrong
version of the movie. Adding to the frustration is the fact that the
capabilities and features of the two formats are far more similar than
they are different–as shown by the chart below.

Feature	DVD	HD-DVD	Blu-ray
Maximum native resolutions supported via HDMI	EDTV (480p)	HDTV (720p, 1080i)	HDTV (720p, 1080i, 1080p)
Maximum image-constrained native resolutions supported via component-video	EDTV (480p)	EDTV+ (960 x 540)	EDTV+ (960 x 540)
Disc capacity	4.7GB (single layer) 8.5GB (dual layer)	15GB (single layer) 30GB (dual layer) 45GB (prototype triple layer)	25GB (single layer) 50GB (dual layer) 100GB (prototype quad layer)
Video capacity (per dual-layer disc)	SD: Approximately 3 hours HD: N.A.	SD: Approximately 24 hours HD: Approximately 8 hours	SD: Approximately 23 hours HD: Approximately 9 hours
Audio soundtracks	Dolby Digital EX, DTS-ES	Dolby TrueHD, DTS-HD, Dolby Digital Plus, Dolby Digital, DTS-ES	Dolby TrueHD, DTS-HD, Dolby Digital Plus, Dolby Digital, DTS-ES
Manufacturer support (home theater)	All	Toshiba, LG, Thomson/RCA	Hitachi, Mitsubishi, LG, Sharp, Sony, Panasonic, Samsung, Philips, Thomson/RCA
Manufacturer support (PC storage)	All	Microsoft, Intel, HP, NEC, Toshiba	Apple, Dell, Benq, HP, LG, Panasonic, Philips, Pioneer, Samsung, Sony, TDK
Studio support	All	Paramount, Studio Canal, Universal, Warner, the Weinstein Company	Sony Pictures (including MGM/Columbia TriStar), Disney (including Touchstone, Miramax), Fox, Paramount, Warner, Lions Gate
Compatible video game consoles	PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, Xbox, Xbox 360, Nintendo Revolution	Xbox 360 (via forthcoming external HD-DVD accessory, sold separately)	PlayStation 3
Player prices	US$99 and less	US$499 and more	US$999 and more
Movie prices	US$7 and more (retail)	US$29 to US$40 (retail)	US$18 to US$24 (wholesale)
Number of titles available by the end of 2006	50,000-plus	Dozens to hundreds	Dozens to hundreds
Players are backward compatible with existing DVD videos	Yes	Yes	Yes
Settop recorders available now	Yes	No	No
Can record high-definition at full resolution (eventually)	No	Yes	Yes
"Managed copy" option	No	Yes	Yes
Copy protection/digital rights management	Macrovision, CSS	AACS	AACS, BD+, BD-ROM Mark
Region-coded discs and players	Yes	No (currently; could change in future)	Yes

Sources include: thedigitalbits.com, dvdfile.com, blu-ray.com, Toshiba
HD-DVD, Blu-ray Disc Association, CNET News.com, and Wikipedia

Whether they are into cars, entertainment systems, or mountain bikes,
true enthusiasts always seek to enhance how their toys perform.
Computer enthusiasts are no different.

One way to improve your PC’s performance is to improve its cooling
capabilities. There are many solutions to choose from, available at
many different price points

High-End Air-Cooling

Water Cooling and Chilling

ThermoElectric Cooling (TEC)

Vapor Compression Cycle Cooling

Exotic Cooling

High-End Air-Cooling
Upgrading your system’s air-cooling – the industry standard since
fan-equipped, active heatsinks first appeared – is a great way to
enhance its performance at a reasonable price.

High-end air coolers are typically larger, with thinner fins and
one-piece construction in place of soldered joints. Some use heatpipe
technology – fluid-filled tubes that transfer away heat – to enhance
the cooling efficiency of the heatsink itself. (AMD uses this type of
cooler in its AMD Athlon™ 64 FX Processor in a Box.) Others use larger,
more expensive heatsinks, and larger, slower fans to reduce fan noise
dramatically, while providing a superior-to-stock cooling solution.

Water Cooling and Chilling
Water coolers, which are more expensive and require more upkeep than
air coolers, pump water through a waterblock – a grooved-channel
heatsink – attached to the processor. Water circulates through the
waterblock, flows through a radiator – which dissipates heat – and then
returns to the pump.

Water chillers are increasingly popular high-end products that
route water across an air conditioner, “chilling” it to even lower
temperatures.

The advantage of water-cooling is that water absorbs energy – here,
in the shape of thermal heat – more efficiently than air, and negates
the need for a noisy fan. On the downside, there is always the chance
of a leak, which will likely destroy components.

ThermoElectric Cooling (TEC)

TEC works on the Peltier effect, the:

production or absorption of heat at the junction of two metals upon
the passage of a current – heat generated by the passage of the current
in one direction will be absorbed if the current is reversed

In other words, when you pass a DC current through a metal plate, its passage creates a hot side and a cold side.

Air-cooled TEC units look like standard heatsink + fan combinations,
with a plate inserted between the heatsink and the chip. They cool
chips efficiently, but there is a risk of damaging condensation. And
the colder the cold side, the hotter the hot side, necessitating a loud
fan to dissipate the extreme heat.

Water-cooled units, which largely are the work of DIYers, cut down on
noise and reduce temperatures significantly. Such hybrid systems offer
the plusses and minuses of both the air- and water-cooled alternatives.

Vapor Compression Cycle Cooling

Vapor Compression Cycle Cooling systems are expensive and most commonly offered for high-end commercial sale.

They work on the same principle as a household refrigerator – R134 gas
is compressed to a vapor, which passes through a condenser, where it
dissipates heat. The cooled vapor then flows to the chill head, which
sits above and cools the CPU, before returning to the compressor, where
the cycle begins again.

This is a closed-loop system that runs quietly, effectively, and safely.

Exotic Cooling
More
expensive and supposedly effective systems include dual phase change,
full mineral oil immersion, and liquid nitrogen coolers.

A redundant array of independent disks (RAID) is a
configuration of two or more disk drives designed to provide improved
performance and, in one setup, to recover automatically from a failure.
Most commonly used in server applications, RAID can also provide
enhanced performance and security for personal computers. RAID systems
can be implemented at two different levels: RAID 0 and RAID 1.

RAID 0

RAID 0 provides data stripping – it takes data that needs to be stored
and distributes it evenly between two or more hard drives. Because the
system considers the two hard drives as one logical hard drive, the
data is stored only once.

In a two-drive setup, for example, RAID 0 saves and accesses data
quickly and efficiently. Rather than one bit at a time, RAID 0 stores
and retrieves two bits of data simultaneously. Theoretically, the time
it takes to save and access information is cut in half over a single
drive system.

RAID 0 is popular for video and image production and editing,
pre-press applications, and other applications requiring high
bandwidth. However, RAID 0 does not provide fault tolerance – if one
drive fails, the information on it is lost.

RAID 1

RAID 1 provides “disk mirroring,” which copies the same data onto two
or more drives. Unless the system uses RAID 1 with duplexing, both
drives must use the same adapter card.

Unlike RAID 0, RAID 1 allows for fault tolerance. Since the same data
is saved twice, if one hard drive fails the second has a complete copy
of all information saved. While not as fast as RAID 0, RAID 1 retrieves
data more efficiently than a single drive setup because information is
gathered in from more than one location.

RAID 1 is popular for accounting, payroll, financial, and
other applications that require high availability and higher relative
data security. However, RAID 1 writes data once in each drive, which
makes saving data less efficient and halves drive capacity.

Setting Up RAID

To use RAID, a system’s motherboard must have an onboard RAID
controller or a PCI-connected RAID controller. Additionally, its hard
drives must be compatible with the motherboard, and preferably all of
the same brand, model, and size. Most RAID-controller-equipped
motherboard manuals describe how to set up RAID, and many ship with
user-friendly setup utilities.

Did you ever wonder if there is an easy way to share
music from your PC with other computers on your home network, or even
your home entertainment system? Well there is, and it is called
streaming audio.

Streaming Audio Basics

Streaming Your Music with SHOUTcast

Streaming Your Music with iTunes and AirPort Express

Streaming Audio Basics

Streaming audio starts with digital audio data encoded into a
recognized format. Then, a streaming audio server transmits a
continuous stream of small packets of digital audio data to connected
clients via the Internet network protocol (TCP/IP).

There are various streaming audio data formats:

• MP3 (for example, SHOUTcast)
• AAC (iTunes Advanced Audio Coding)
• WMA (Windows^® Media Audio)
• Others (for example, Real Media Audio)

Each stream has a certain bitrate, which determines how many
packets of data per second the server sends to the client. Higher
bitrates typically offer better quality, but also require a faster
connection.

Streaming Your Music with SHOUTcast

Nullsoft’s SHOUTcast offers a particularly easy, flexible, and
cost-effective way to enable all computers on your home network to
listen to music broadcast by one machine.

Start by downloading two items from SHOUTcast’s website:

• The latest version of SHOUTcast’s Win32 Server
• The SHOUTcast DSP plug-in for Winamp

The SHOUTcast installer creates and opens the “SHOUTcast DNAS.” From
there, select “Edit SHOUTcast DNAS configuration,” and then replace the
default password with your own. (Ignore the other options under
“Required stuff” if you have fewer than 32 machines on your home
network.)

“Logging configuration” is the first sub-window under “Optional Parameters.” You need make no changes here.

But the items under “Network Configuration” are important:

• “SrcIP” determines where the server will source the audio it broadcasts; type in SrcIP=127.0.0.1 so the server will accept audio only from its host machine
• “DestIP” determines who can hear the music you broadcast; enter the
  fixed IP address of the client device(s) you wish to connect with your
  home network, which should read something like “DestIP=192.168.0.2.”

Finally, scroll down the “Server Configuration” page until you reach “Public Server”:

• Set “PublicServer” to “PublicServer=never”
• Set “AllowRelay” to “AllowRelay=No”
• Set “AllowPublicRelay” to “AllowPublicRelay=No”

Run the DSP plug-in installer, which will automatically locate your
Winamp folder. Launch Winamp, select “Preferences” from the “Options”
menu, go to “Plug ins” -> “DSP/Effect,” and select “Nullsoft
SHOUTcast DSP.”

When a new window pops up, select the “Output” tab and click the “Connection” button:

• Enter “localhost” in the “Address” box, making sure you use the same password you entered in the server’s configuration file
• Click the “Yellowpages” button
• Uncheck the “Make this server public” box
• Enter into the “Description” box the server name of your choice

At the “Encoder” tab, select “Encoder 1,” and then select “MP3
Encoder” in the “Encoder Type” drop-down box. A second drop-down box,
“Encoder Settings,” allows you to select the bitrate and sampling
frequency of your audio stream, and to choose between mono or stereo.
(It is best to match these values to the quality of the music you
stream, or plan to stream, over your home network.)
 
Launch the server application “SHOUTcast DNAS GUI,” which opens a
console window relaying status information. You can minimize this
console while the server runs, but make sure you do not close it.
 
Select a song or playlist in Winamp and play it, then go to the
“Output” tab in the DSP plug-in’s window and click the “Connect”
button. Your server is now set up and ready to accept connections from
your home network client(s).
 
As long as your clients have media player software capable of playing
streaming audio, they can run any type of operating system – Windows^®,
Linux, Mac, and so on. Just select “Open URL,” “Play URL,” or “Open
Stream” from your player’s menu, and enter the IP address of your home
network server, followed by a colon and the number 8000.
 

  Streaming Your Music with iTunes and AirPort Express
 
 
If you own an iPod music player it is probably best to stream digital
audio using Apple’s iTunes software and AirPort Express, which features
a 3.5mm audio jack and optical connections to connect directly with
your home entertainment system or a pair of powered speakers.* You also
need wireless LAN functionality (802.11b or 802.11g) on at least the
computer that will stream music to the AirPort Express.

Once you configure your AirPort Express, iTunes will automatically find
it and offer a “Remote speakers” option at the bottom of the window.
Select the desired speakers or home entertainment system and listen
away.

Modding is the act of modifying the way your computer performs, looks,
or functions. Some popular mods involve painting, cutting, and lighting
your computer.

Painting
Painting Metal
Painting Plastic
Other Painting Tips

Cutting
Cutting Introduction
Cutting Metal
Cutting Plastic

Lighting

Lighting Your PC
Cold Cathode Fluorescent Tubes
Electro-Luminescent Wire
Light Emitting Diodes: An Introduction
Planning for your LED Circuit
Wiring your LED Circuit
Mounting LEDs

Painting Metal
If you take the correct steps and time to spray-paint your metal PC
case, you can greatly improve its look. But rush the job, and you risk
disaster.

Safety
Because spray paint fumes can damage your eyes and lungs, and irritate
your skin, always wear the appropriate gloves, respirator, and goggles;
always paint in a well-ventilated area; and always follow the
precautions listed on the paint container.

Step 1 – Sanding
To ensure the paint adheres
to metal, you must prepare the surface correctly. First, sandpaper it
well to remove existing paint, rust, or dirt. (Take care neither to
create deep scratches, nor to sand the surface so perfectly the paint
will not stick.) Second, clean the surface with an appropriate cleaner
to remove any traces of paint and dust.

Step 2 – Masking Tape
Tape off with masking tape any areas you do not plan to paint. To make
sure no paint leaks under the tape, press it firmly to the metal.

Step 3 – Primer
To ensure a great paint job, apply one or two coats of quality primer
directly to the prepared metal. (To cover any scratches, apply more
coats as necessary.) Before moving to the next step, follow the
dry-time directions on the primer container.

Step 4 – Painting
Once the primer dries, follow the directions on the paint can to learn
how far from the surface to hold it and how long to wait between coats.
Then spray on several light coats of paint. Do not worry if you fail to
cover the surface on the first attempt – you will catch the spots you
missed with subsequent coats.

Step 5 – Clear-Coat
To protect your new paint job against scratches, apply several layers
of clear-coat, which is a spray-on acrylic finish. The more thin layers
of clear-coat you apply, the better the protection. If you scratch the
clear-coat, you can usually rub or polish out the damage instead of
repainting the entire surface. You can also apply clear-coat to bare
metal, to protect it or give it a glossy look.

Painting Plastic
Most modders use plastic-specific spray paints, such as vinyl color or
vinyl dye. As is true of metal, if you take the correct steps and time
to spray-paint your plastic parts, you can greatly improve their look.
But rush the job, and you risk disaster. And as is the true when
painting metal, always wear the necessary safety equipment and follow
the precautions listed on the paint container.

Step 1 – Preparation
When painting plastic, all you need is a good clean surface and the
paint will stick. DO NOT USE sandpaper or alcohol-, acetone-, or
ammonia-based cleaners, all of which can seriously damage plastic
surfaces. Simply clean the surface with a lint-free towel and a mild
soap, and then let it dry.

Step 2 – Painting
Once your plastic part dries, apply very light coats of paint that
barely dust the surface. You might need dozens of these light coats to
cover the surface completely, but the results will be beautiful. Let
each coat dry for 5 to 10 minutes before applying the next. Allow the
final coat to dry overnight before using the plastic part.

Step 3 – Clear-Coat
Plastic paints usually last far longer than most metal paints. That
said, you might choose to clear-coat your plastic surface for more
shiny and durable results. Again, you need to apply many very light
coats.

Other Painting Tips

Using Masking Tape Creatively
If you think of
masking tape as more than a mundane tool, it can be your creative best
friend. Armed with a sharp pencil and a precision craft knife, you can
design or trace artistic patterns and shapes, transfer them to tape,
cut them out, and then stick them to the case or part you wish to
paint. (You can also use tape to preserve labels and decals you do not
wish to paint.)

Fading and Mixing Colors

To further personalize your work, consider applying paint to parts in a variety of different stripes, layers, and fades.

Painting Clear Plastics
If you paint the back of a quality piece of clear plastic you can
create a beautiful mirrored look on the front. In addition to providing
an incredibly durable finish, this technique allows you to etch the
painted surface and enhance any lighting effects.

Cutting Introduction

Cutting Into Your Case
You can mod your PC by using a rotary tool to cut into your case
something as simple as a small window or as complex as a cityscape.

Safety

When cutting metal,
always wear leather gloves and goggles. When using a rotary tool,
especially on materials that create a lot of dust, always wear a dust
mask rated for the material you plan to cut.

When cutting plastics know that most melt
at relatively low temperatures, and that cutting them presents a
different challenge and demands a drill and a specially designed spiral
bit for your rotary tool. And because heated plastic can release both
sharp debris and harmful fumes, always wear goggles and a respirator,
and always work in a well-ventilated area.

Cutting Metal

Step 1 – Masking Tape
Apply masking tape to protect the metal case surface from scratches.
Then draw or trace onto the tape the lines you plan to cut.

Step 2 – Cutting
The correct way to cut with a rotary tool is to plunge the blade into
the surface – always inside your marked line – lift it out, and repeat
this process as necessary.

Step 3 – Smoothing the Edge
Finish your cut
with a file and sandpaper. Use the file to reshape and smooth out any
significant nicks and bumps, and the sandpaper to clean away metal
shards and smooth the cut edge back to your marked line.

Step 4 – Trim
Add trim to improve your cut’s look and protect its edge from dings and
dust – and also to protect your fingers. You can buy trim at any
automotive parts retailer or make your own by slitting plastic tubing.
Cut the trim long, press it over the edge, and heat it with a hairdryer
to bend it around arcs and into corners. Once you trim the cut, snip
off the start and finish ends where they meet.

Cutting Plastic

Step 1 – Preparation

Clean the plastic and mark your design onto the surface with a sharp tool or pencil.

Step 2 – Drilling a Pilot Hole

Before cutting with your spiral bit, drill a small pilot hole just inside your marked line.

Step 3 – Cutting
Plunge the spiral bit into your pilot hole, and begin cutting inside
your marked line by pushing the bit very slowly and removing melted
plastic as you go. Keep your rotary tool at a slow-ish speed to prevent
the cut plastic from heating up and re-fusing.

Step 4 –Finishing the Cut
Finish your cut with a file and sandpaper. Use the file to reshape and
smooth out any significant nicks and bumps, and the sandpaper to clean
away plastic shards and smooth the edge back to your marked line. If
you cut clear plastic, use progressively fine grades of sandpaper to
polish the new edge – wet-dry sandpaper will keep the plastic from
melting and yield the best results. Finally, switch to progressively
fine polishing compounds to achieve a near-perfect finish.

                

Special Note: Score and Snap
Often, you can score a thin plastic sheet with a hobby or utility
knife, place the score line at the edge of a table or step, and simply
snap it in two. Always wear goggles, in case the plastic shatters.

Lighting Your PC

Modders commonly use three types of lighting to customize their computers – Cold Cathode Fluorescent Light Tubes (CCFLs), Electro-Luminescent Wire (EL-Wire), and Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs).

Cold Cathode Fluorescent Tubes (CCFL Tubes)

CCFLs are fragile, miniature fluorescent tubes. They emit a lot of
light, are cheap and quick to install, and are available in sizes from
four inches to two feet, and in nearly any color you might want. Be
warned that some “red” CCFLs shine orange, some “blue” ones teal, and
so on. If you want a specific color, choose a different option.

Safety
CCFLs are powered by inverters, which generate hundreds of volts. Never
touch an inverter’s outputs, never run the inverter without a CCFL tube
attached, and never extend an inverter’s output wires unless you use
appropriately rated high-voltage wiring.

Step 1 – Mounting
CCFLs are most effective when you install them out of direct view and
close to a power source. You will need to hide the inverter too. If
your CCFL does not come with mounting hardware, mount it with
double-sided tape or zip-ties.

Step 2 – Wiring
Connect an inverter to the power connector inside your computer. If it
is packaged with a switch, cut a hole for the accessory and mount it
before connecting the CCFL tube to the inverter.

Step 3 – Testing
Now turn on your computer to see if the CCFL works. (Note, some
cathodes take time to warm up to their full brightness. Also note, if
your inverter makes a high-pitched whine, encase it in metal, and never
in plastic or soft materials, which might melt or catch fire from the
heat.)

Electro-Luminescent Wire (EL-Wire)
Designed for direct-view installation and flexibility, EL-wire is not a
bright source of light, but is ideal for illuminating cables, trimming
the edges of case windows, and adding artistic touches. You can buy it
by length or in kits.

Safety
Because EL-wire is powered by inverters, which generate hundreds of
volts, never touch an inverter’s outputs, never run the inverter
without EL-wire attached, and never extend an inverter’s output wires
unless you use appropriately rated high-voltage wiring.

Step 1 – Mounting
You can mount EL-wire in
various ways: wrap it around a cable or part, superglue it along the
edges of a case window, or even zip-tie it into place.

Step 2 – Wiring
Connect an inverter to a power connector inside your computer – if it
is packaged with a switch, cut a hole for the accessory and mount it
before connecting the EL-wire to the inverter.

Step 3 – Testing
Now turn on your computer to
see if the EL-wire works. (Note, if your inverter makes a high-pitched
whine, encase it in metal, and never in plastic or cloth, which might
melt or catch fire from the heat.)

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs): An Introduction
LEDs
are the small lights used as power indicators on your computer and,
increasingly, as brake lights on high end automobiles. We measure an
LED’s brightness according to a millicandela (mcd) scale, and the
super-bright LEDs best for modding are rated above 2500mcd. They
produce precise colors, generate negligible heat, use little power, and
last for years – and you can buy them in DIY, single, or multiple-LED
packages. Here, we focus on DIY installation.

Safety

Because super-bright LEDs can harm the human eye, always install them out of direct view.

About LEDs

Here are five things to know before wiring an LED:

1. Standard computer power-sources rate at +12volts and +5volts
2. An LED’s “forward voltage specification” is the amount of voltage it consumes as power passes through it
3. Because LEDs are semiconductors operating within limited
   tolerances, and because too much power will burn them out, you must
   protect them with current-limiting resistors.
4. The current flowing through an LED must be equal to, or less than, its “typical current rating.” If not, it will not work.
5. Like common or garden batteries, LEDs are polarity sensitive. If you install them backward, they will not work

Planning for Your LED Circuit

Single LED Circuit Resistor Requirements
Set out using a first formulation of Ohm’s Law to discover the resistor
needed for an LED installation – R = V / I, where “R” is resistance in
ohms, “V” is voltage in volts, and “I” is current in amps.

Consider, for example, a +5volts power-source and an LED rated at
20milliamps (mA) with a 2.4volt forward voltage specification. By
subtracting the LED’s forward voltage specification (2.4V) from the
power-source voltage (5V), you are left with 2.6volts, the “V” in Ohm’s
Law. Then divide the “V” by the “I,” the LED’s electrical current
rating (20mA or 0.02amps), to reach an “R” of 130ohms, the value of the
resistor necessary to protect your LED. In simpler terms, a 130ohms
resistor will protect a 20mA, 2.4volt LED running on a 5volt circuit.

Now, when choosing a resistor, you must also consider the amount of
power it can handle using a second formulation of Ohm’s Law – W = I x
V, where “W” is power in watts, “I” remains current in amps, and “V”
remains voltage in volts

Multiply the 2.6volts that reach the resistor in the example above by
the 0.02A flowing through the circuit to yield the wattage the resistor
must take up and dissipate as heat. The answer is 0.052watts, or less
than 1/16watt. Then choose a resistor rated for a higher wattage, say
1/8watt, to avoid the possibility of failure or even fire.

Series LED Circuit Resistor Requirements
Wiring LEDs in series is a practical way to increase significantly the
number of LEDs you can connect on a single circuit. When wiring LEDs in
series, use the same equations for wiring a single LED, but multiply
the forward voltage specification of each LED by the number of LEDs you
plan to use.

Parallel LED Wiring Resistor Requirements
Do not wire LEDs in parallel on a single resistor. Instead, wire single
LEDs in parallel only when each has its own resistor and series-wired
LEDs in parallel only when each series has its own resistor.

Wiring Your LED Circuit
With the appropriate resistors selected, you can get to work with a
soldering iron and a few other basic tools. You will also need one
Molex power connector with attached wires, one LED, one resistor, 22
gauge or thicker wire – the lower the gauge number the thicker the wire
– and five pieces of small heat-shrink tubing

Safety
Learn how to use a soldering iron and any other tools safely before
attempting any mod. Solder may contain lead – so always handle it
carefully, always follow the safety precautions on product packaging,
and always solder in a well-ventilated area. And always, always make
sure your power source is off while soldering.

Step 1 – Strip the Power Connector
On a
standard Molex power connector, the yellow wire is +12volts, the red
wire is +5volts, and the two black wires are available for ground
and/or negative. For single LED circuits use the +5volts wire. With
wire-strippers, strip off half an inch of tubing from the red wire and
one black wire. To prevent short circuits, cut down the unused wires
and wrap them individually with tape.

    

Step 2 – Connect the Positive Wire to the Power Connector
Cut
a piece of 22 gauge or thicker wire long enough to reach from the power
connector to your resistor. Protect it with heat-shrink tubing and
strip one end of the wire. Then wrap this exposed wire together with
the power connector’s stripped red wire. Apply solder to this joint and
cover it fully with the heat-shrink tubing. Finally, shrink the tubing
over the resistor by heating it with a butane lighter or heat gun.

Step 3 – Connect the Positive Wire to the Resistor
Strip the free end of the wire and wrap it around one leg of the
resistor. Apply solder to this joint and cut away any extra wire from
the resistor. Slip some heat-shrink tubing (long enough to cover the
resistor and the solder-joints) over the resistor and onto the wire.

Step 4 – Finish Wiring the Resistor
Cut a piece of wire long enough to reach from the resistor to the LED.
Strip one end of this wire and wrap it around the free leg of the
resistor. Solder this joint and cut away any extra wire. Slip the
heat-shrink tubing from Step 4 back onto the resistor so it covers the
resistor and all soldered joints. Then heat the tubing to shrink it.

Step 5 – Wire the Positive Leg of the LED
Strip the other end of the wire you attached to the resistor in Step 4,
and slip some heat-shrink tubing over it. Wrap the exposed end of the
wire around the positive leg of the LED – this is usually the longer
leg, but do not fear, you will test the LED before soldering the wire
to it.

Step 6 – Connect the Negative Wire to the Power Connector
Cut a piece of wire long enough to reach from the LED back to the power
connector. Repeat Step 2, connecting this wire to the power connector’s
negative (black) wire.

Step 7 – Wire the Negative Leg of the LED
Strip the free end of the negative wire. (Slip a piece of heat-shrink
tubing onto this wire now for use later.) Wrap the wire tightly around
the negative leg of the LED, making sure the two legs do not touch.

Step 8 – Test the LED
With the LED attached thus to the resistor and power connector, switch
on the power to test the LED. If it does not light, disconnect power
and simply reverse the wires wrapped around the LED’s legs and test
again. When the LED lights, move to Step 9.

Step 9 – Solder the LED
Disconnect the power source and apply solder to the wires wrapped
around the legs of the LED. Then, slip the two pieces of heat-shrink
tubing fully over the LED’s solder joints and heat them. Finally,
retest your LED.

Mounting LEDs

The easiest way to mount your LED is with a hot-glue gun.

Step 1 –Test Your Mounting Location

Tape your LED to the desired spot. If it projects light as and to where you hoped, mark its location and remove it.

Step 2 – Mount the LED
To keep the LED in place while the glue sets, tape down the wires
running to and from it. Apply hot glue to the LED and the mounting
surface, while carefully protecting the front of the LED. As the glue
cools down, hold the LED in place with tweezers. Also, you can choose
to leave the wires taped or to glue them down.

Step 3 – Final Testing

Power up your LED and enjoy the results.

      

————————————————————————————————— What are Heat Pipes? As processor clock speeds have risen in recent years, heat dissipation has become an issue of increasing importance for builders of high-performance systems. Heat pipes are an innovative approach to keeping things cool inside your system without the complication of water cooling or the noise of additional fans.

How Much RAM Do You Really Need?

Jon Kullberg, Patrick Schmid

13 Dec 2005 11:48

Shop for Memory pgml=1;

Conclusion

The bottom line is that there is not just one single answer to the
question of how much system memory you need. However, to help you
decide for yourself, we put together the following criteria:

512 MB

There are a few situations where having just 512 MB system memory in your computer can be enough.

• If you run your games at low quality settings (small texture size)
  because you have an outdated CPU and graphics card, or because you
  prefer FPS over visual quality.
• If you only use one application at a time.
• If it is your grandmother’s computer.

If you are buying a new computer, even if it’s a laptop, opt for more than 512 MB - you will never regret it.

1 GB

Indeed, 1 GB of system memory will most likely be enough for the average user and for people.

• It will allow you to play new games at their highest quality
  settings, given that you have an adequate processor and a powerful
  graphics solution.
• You won’t have to shut down non-critical applications when you want to play a game.
• You can (accidentally) press the Windows
  button while in a game without dying from a stroke during the seconds
  it takes to read Windows back into system memory from the swap file.
• If you go from 512 MB to 1 GB, you will notice the difference all
  the time. Starting up Photoshop while working with Word, an Internet
  browser, e-mail client and Acrobat Reader will go so much faster, and
  switching between the applications is a breeze.

2 GB

Still there are situations where more than 1 GB is what you want.

• If you are a professional user, you might need more than 1 GB for really heavy applications.
• If you intend to do heavy multitasking, especially if you have more
  than one CPU or CPU core. Running RAM intensive games such as World of
  Warcraft, downloading files via high speed FTP or encrypted protocols,
  Bittorrent or any P2P program; decompressing large archives and playing
  large size video files in a window or on second monitor all at the same
  time can max out your system memory pretty fast - if your CPU can
  handle it.

Overclocking

DISCLAIMER: I am not at fault for anything that happens to you, your computer,
or yourself because of anything in this guide. Your stuff explodes, I am not to
blame. So don’t try any lawsuits.

FAQ

What is overclocking?
Basically, overclocking is allowing your CPU to run faster than the
manufacturer guaranteed it to. There is no physical difference between a 3000+
and a 3800+; both are 90nm

Venice

cores. Same goes with others, the Opteron 165 is the same as the FX-60. Think
about it this way: AMD only essentially makes four different 90nm s939 CPUs:
512kb L2 cache single-core (Venice), 1mb L2 cache single-core (San Diego,
Venus), 512+512kb dual-core (Manchester), and 1+1mb dual-core (Toledo,
Denmark). For example, any two 1mbSC CPUs at the same speed are comparable…
whether it is an Opteron 144 overclocked to 2.8ghz or an FX-57, they should
compare almost equal (if anything the Opteron would be faster, but neglect this
for the moment). A 1mbDC running at 2.5ghz is 20% faster than a 1mbDC at
2.0ghz. So why all the different CPUs? Most of it comes down to marketing
reasons, the FX-57 can be sold for about $700 more than the Opteron 144. The
FX-57 is guaranteed the clock speed of 2.8ghz, while the Opteron is not. This
is the fundamental difference in individual CPUs, some just happen to come out
better than others. If you buy an Athlon processor, you might not have as good
‘luck’ as an Opteron or AthlonFX CPU. The AthlonFX CPUs also have unlocked
multipliers, which are helpful, but not necessary, when overclocking. This is
not a feature that AMD spent extra time putting into the FXs though… rather,
everything BUT the FX series has been ‘locked’, only to make users want to
spend more for their CPUs… avoid the temptation! You are here to overclock!
Let it be very clear there are no guarantees. Your 2.0ghz CPU might not make it
to 2.1ghz. This is extremely unlikely however. Most Athlon processors are
deacent overclockers, Opterons and FXs tend to do better. Another non-guarantee
exists here, too: buying an Opteron or FX gives you a better chance at a higher
overclock, but don’t be flustered if a 3700+ can hit 2.8ghz when your 144
cannot. "Luck of the draw" is unfortunately one of the largest
deciders of overclocking potential.

Is overclocking dangerous?
Contrary to popular belief, overclocking itself can be very safe.
There are two major things you must do when overclocking: raise the speed, and
raise the voltage. Raising the speed (mhz, ghz) of a CPU cannot really damage
it. However, you will probably find that your CPU cannot do X.Xghz unless you
feed it more voltage. While the FX-57 is guaranteed to run happily at 2.8ghz
with only 1.4v, having a 3700+ at such a level may be wishful thinking (but
again, this is not always the case!). Voltage increases are generally the
reason a CPU gets destroyed by overclocking. Do not fear though, voltage
options are clearly labelled in your motherboard setup. This is not something
you can accidentally mess up… if you keep your CPU under 105% of what the core
is rated at, you should be more than safe… but we will get to closer
approximations later. Remember that the CPUs were designed to handle voltage
fluctuations: not even the most expensive power supplies can keep a CPU at
exactly 1.4v.
If you do want to raise voltage, adequate cooling is a must. Whether the stock
heatsink, a replacement heatsink, water cooling, or exotic cooling is necessary
depends on what you are wanting to do. Yet again, more later.
Overvolted CPUs do tend to not last as long as stock-voltage CPUs. But when we
are looking at about a 15yr lifespan for most, you might not mind that number
being cut down to 10yrs, or even 7yrs… think about a computer that is even
5yrs old, and how much you would mind if its now-$30 CPU crapped out tomorrow.

Will overclocking void my warranty?
Yes.

Getting started

Part Selection:
CPU:
The best performance-for-money overclockers at the time of writing this article
would have to be the s939 Opterons. They ship with a very low stock voltage,
despite the fact that their identical Athlon brothers need more voltage to run
at the same speeds. This gives you extra headroom, because while 1.4v is
technically an overvolt for an Opteron, it is a safe voltage endorsed by AMD in
their Athlon line! So the amazing overclockability of Opterons on stock
voltage, combined with the .1v ‘boost’, gives spectacular results.
If you have extreme loads of cash and do not mind spending a few hundred on
something that will be antiquated in a year, the FX line might be for you. They
offer unlocked multipliers which offer more freedom in overclocking, and they
have very high speeds to begin with. I would however not suggest an older FX
CPU though, such as the FX-53, as for much less money you can have a 4000+.
Surely in time, the FX-55 will have a non-FX counterpart, etc. Pretty much, the
only FX worth buying (if an FX is worth buying) is the current fastest one of
either single or dual core.

Mainboard:
This is as important as the CPU. A good board is what provides you with all the
options for overclocking. Due to the extremely varied and next to unpredictable
nature of motherboard production, even a brand is hard to recommend… but most
enthusiasts prefer DFI. Jetway is another manufacturer that is beginning to get
into the high-overclock market for a very good price. ASUS makes
deacently-overclockable boards with simpler (read: less) options than the
previous two mentioned. Make sure the mainboard has LOCKED
SATA/IDE/PCI/PCIe/AGP ports. Basically, unlocked of these will cause huge problems,
including corrupted data. Most board have locked SATA ports, for instance… on
my DFI, 3,4,7,8 are the locked ports. USE THESE.

RAM:
Many think that to overclock, you need superultraamazing RAM. This is not the
case. Thanks to memory dividers, even regular DDR400 memory can be used in
combination with a highly overclocked processor. However, to give more freedom,
and to make sure that it works well in a premium mainboard, you might want to
invest in some good memory. OCZ and Gskill both make amazing products; Patriot
does so for a lesser price. It is at least as important to look at what kind of
memory you are buying though… Samsung TCCD allows high clocks at low
voltages, but do not have great timings (another factor in overall speed). BH-5
memory has great timings, but does not acheive as high clocks, and requires
higher voltage. Huge debates go on and on about which is better, but the truth
is, both tend to perform about the same when doing their best. (It should be
noted that the author of this article currently prefers TCCD, as its lower
voltage is easier on the CPU and motherboard, and its great variability in
overall mhz allows freedom in overclocking… but this is only an opinion.)

Power supply:
Get a good one. DO NOT SKIMP ON THE POWER SUPPLY. Yes, it’s about the only
thing that doesn’t improve performance when you pay more for one, but a quality
power supply means a lot… whether it is higher overclocks, a more quiet and
stable system, or even a working system at all! A junky power supply could be
the demise of your new $2000 tower, or the reason you can’t get to X.Xghz.
Stable voltages and adequate power are musts, especially for overclocking. When
selecting a power supply, look at the amperage per volt, not the overall power
rating! For instance, a good ~500w power supply will probably have at least
30amps on the +12v ‘rail’. A cheapo 600w, though, might only have 15amps. A
quality manufacturer is also a really good idea, like Epower/Tagan and OCZ
(which are very similar to Epower/Tagan). Read reviews, ask people. It’s
generally a difficult thing to decide by numbers alone, so you’ll have to
research this one.

Cooling:
For a small, or even moderate overclock, the stock heatsink is okay. For a
higher overclock, or just to enjoy cooler and silent operation, a better
heatsink is advised. For extreme, record-breaking overclocks, watercooling and
phase-change cooling are preferred, but are costly and generally
high-maintenance. If you aren’t even sure what these do, chances are you want
to just stick with air cooling for now.
Understand that increasing the speed of a CPU barely increases heat, and
doesn’t demand the need for better cooling. Increasing voltage, however,
greatly adds to heat.

BIOS
Whenever you get your computer put together with XP installed etc, during a
startup, push the key to enter the BIOS (usually [

DEL

]). This will bring you to a menu of the
computer’s low-level operating conditions. Without going into too much detail:
set up your boot order, disable things you don’t want or need, save and
restart. Enter BIOS again, and begin exploring. There is generally an
overclocking section/page, almost always named something different depending on
the manufacturer. DFI boards call it "Genie BIOS", MSI calls it the
"Cell Menu"… either way, find it. The following are a few options
that we will be using for the remainder of the guide:
FSB/CPU clock/HTT speed (hereon referred to as FSB): This, times the
multiplier, derives the overall speed of your CPU. For example, 250 FSB x 11
multiplier = 2750mhz. This also controlls the memory speed… 200mhz here
equates to DDR400 memory. 250mhz, DDR500. Mhz*2 = DDR rating. Also, we can use
dividers to make your memory run slower if your CPU can be let loose…
discussed in detail momentarily.
Multiplier: As shown earlier, affects the overall speed of the CPU.
HTT Ratio: FSB x HTT ratio x 2 = HyperTransport speed. For the latest CPUs,
this is 2000mhz. Notice stock, it is 200mhz x 5 x 2 = 2000mhz. If your FSB is
at 300mhz, then you need to kick this down to 3 to stay under the 2000 limit.
For FSB between >200 and 250, use 4x. 250 to 333, use 3x. You can figure it
out from here, if you get that far that is.
CPU Voltage: The voltage sent to the CPU. Take care in not making this too
high. Look up what is stock for your CPU, and make an informed decision about
how high you want it… but don’t set it there yet. Let’s wait and see how hot
your CPU gets with its current cooling before you go crazy. On some boards the
voltage is a combination of a base and a percentage, such that 1.400v and 110%
would give 1.540v.
RAM Voltage: Voltage to RAM. Take same precautions as for CPU voltage. If you
have hot-running RAM and/or >2.8v to it, use active cooling (ie, a fan).
Chipset voltage, and LDT Voltage: These rarely need to be increased. By the
time you are ready to do so, you will likely not be reading this guide.
RAM Settings
Memory Divider: The easy way to use this for now would be to multiply the ratio
times the FSB to get how fast your memory is running. For example, a (5/6)
divider will make your RAM run at 5/6 the FSB. It may be represented in terms
of DDR400; in which case, (5/6) would be called DDR333, or a 166 divider. It
should become pretty clear by the time you see the list though.
Memory Timings: Depending on your board, you should see anywhere from four to
fourty of these. I won’t get into detail here, but when you bought the RAM, its
timings may have been advertised as 2.5-3-3-7. This is in order of
CAS-tRCD-tRP-tRAS. It might be a good idea to either leave these at defaults,
or set them to what is specified.
Command Rate: This is 1T or 2T. 1T is faster than 2T. 2T provides greater
stability at a loss of performance. Most RAM is made to run at 1T. Try to keep
it at 1T.

Finding your CPU’s maximum
Set the memory divider to something low, like (1/2) or (2/3). Make the command
rate 2T. You are now going to see how fast your CPU can run independently of
the memory.
Starting at 200xDefault, raise the FSB maybe 5mhz. Change the HTT Ratio to 4x
to avoid exceeding 2000mhz on the HyperTransport. Save BIOS settings, and
restart.
If you start booting to Windows (or OS of choice) this is a good sign… if
your multiplier is say 10x, you have just acheived a 50mhz overclock! Refer to
‘Stress Testing’ section right now. An overclocked CPU that isn’t stable is no
good. If it is ’stable enough’, then restart, and raise your FSB a bit more.
Eventually, you might not be able to boot Windows, or pass a stability test. It
is at this time you might want to consider increasing the voltage. REMEMBER THE
WARNINGS DISCUSSED ABOVE. If your CPU is stock 1.4v, maybe try 1.45v. It should
help if you’ve been going slow. If you’re impatient and went for 250xDefault
right off the bat, then judging a proper voltage is going to be difficult. For
beginners, keep the voltage within .1v of stock (or for Opterons, up to 1.5v).
WATCH THE HEAT! If your CPU was getting near 50*C running the stress test, you
might not want to increase voltage. In fact, as a general rule, your CPU should
never reach 50*C, even overclocked and overvolted. This isn’t near a dangerous
temperature, but it is a good way to make sure you don’t kill your CPU slowly
over time.
So after a little while, you will see how far your CPU will go with a maximum
of 1.5v, or whatever you have chosen for yourself, or whatever keeps your
temperatures under 50*C. For the example, let’s say your CPU’s max is 260×10,
or 2600mhz.

Finding your RAM’s maximum
Set the CPU multiplier to at least one less than default, but no lower than 7x.
We have to make sure that in this situation, FSBxDivider does not exceed even
stock ratings. Also, go ahead and change CPU voltage back to default. Set the
memory ratio to 1/1, or 200, or DDR400.
Now again, slowly raise the FSB. If you get a successful boot and stability
(see ‘Stress Testing’), go for more! DDR500 RAM should be able to hit 250mhz,
you can start there if you want, etc for other memory speeds. If it is
unstable, you may choose to add voltage, and/or ‘loosen’ (increase = slower)
timings. There are so many choices and complications when doing this I suggest
you seek an outside source, other than higher numbers providing more stability
and higher clocks. If your RAM is say rated to run at 2.5-3-3-7, then maybe
increasing it to 3-4-4-8 to acheive a 50% overclock on your RAM might not be a
bad idea. Play around with it. Go for the highest mhz you can, but don’t send
your timings to trash just to gain an extra 2mhz.
When you have found the maximum speed your RAM will run at, continue to the
next step. For the example, we will say the RAM runs at 240mhz at most.

Balancing CPU/RAM speeds
For our example, the CPU hit 2600mhz with 260×10, and the memory hit 240mhz. So
how do we do both, instead of just one at a time? Well, remember that the FSB
controls both. For the CPU’s sake, we will set the CPU to 260×10 (remember to
restore the necessary voltage, to both CPU and memory!) and then go back to our
RAM settings section. Think about the divider options you have: in our example,
our memory cannot run at 260mhz, but only 240mhz. The closest we can come would
be by the use of a (9/10) divider. That would make our memory run at about
(9/10)*FSB, which is about 234mhz. Kind of sucks that we lose a little, but
rarely will you optimize this balance. Go for CPU mhz first, unless we are
talking about taking 50mhz off your RAM speed just for 10mhz on your CPU (I am
still researching the best tradeoff ratio, I’ll edit the guide when I find it).
If your RAM maxes out at say 260mhz, then you can run it at (1/1). If your RAM
exceeds the FSB that your CPU did, you can use one of two options (or both): a
positive divider, such as (5/4) found on some DFI boards, which would make a
260mhz FSB get the RAM running at about 325mhz (wow!). Another option would be
to lower the CPU multiplier and raising the FSB to give you approximately the
same overall speed. Using our example, 289mhz FSB with a 9x multiplier would
still get you 2600mhz on the CPU… but now we can run the memory (1/1) with
the FSB, keeping the memory at a high 289mhz.
Now that you understand the concepts, time to get the exact RAM speed in
relation to the FSB. This was excluded before due to its complication and
unnecessarily-preciseness. The formula is as follows: …… Chances are it
will not make a huge difference in your RAM speed, but it’s good to know.

Stress Testing / Heat Output
An overclock that is not stable is worthless. You cannot claim you paid $300
for a virtual FX-60 when it barely boots up. To make sure your computer will
not be restarting on the hour crashing games, we have to test it to make sure
all is well. I’ll outline a few tools and purposes:

WHEN TESTING CPU SPEED:
Stress Prime 2004 - A good program, but it takes a long time to guarantee
stability. This isn’t necessarily a bad thing though. It uses prime number
calculation to make sure your CPU is not miscalculating numbers. Use the ‘Large
FFT’ test. If using a dual-core CPU, install two instances, to two different
folders. Start both. Uncheck the ‘No Affinity’ box for each. Set one to CPU0, the
other to CPU1. Still using the ‘Large FFT’ test, run both at the same time.
Chances are, it will find errors when you might not even see anything wrong
with the computer. This is normal. You might be able to play Doom on something
that Prime says isn’t stable, but you won’t be happy when your computer
restarts when you’re writing a superlong guide on overclocking that you never
saved (not based off a true story, fortunately). A ’stable enough’ run is
letting it run for 30mins or so, when you decide to restart and go for a
slightly higher overclock. When you think you have found your maximum, let it
run for at least 8hrs before you call it stable.

WHEN TESTING RAM SPEED:
MemTest86+ - This is a bootable program, not to be run in Windows. If you have
a DFI board, it is built-in, and enable(able?) in BIOS. Let it run for at least
one pass until you overclock the memory further, and let it run for about 8hrs
when you think you have found your maximum. This is the same deal as when
testing the CPU… don’t fuss when it says it is instable and you disagree, or
you’ll be sorry later.

WHEN TESTING OVERALL:
Stress Prime 2004 - Keep using the ‘Large FFT’ test. Doesn’t hit your RAM that
hard, but you’ll find that maybe a maxed out CPU and maxed out RAM are suddenly
unstable.
Memtest - Same idea as above, you want to make sure that the RAM doesn’t start
acting up once your restored your CPU max.
OCCT - Another great program, that stresses CPU and RAM. It tends to find
errors much faster than Stress Prime 2004. It’s greatest flaw is that it is
useless for dual-core CPUs. If you have a solo, this is the best test for final
stability. The 30min test will give you a good indication of where you stand,
but let it run for a few hours if you want to be sure you are stable.

ALWAYS CHECK TEMPERATURES!
Heat kills a CPU. Remember to occasionally check temperatures in BIOS when you
just set voltage a bit higher. When you are doing any Windows-based testing,
check out some good software solutions. I prefer MBM5. It can be set up to read
a variety of temperatures. Remember to keep the maximum temperature under 50*C,
and idle temperature under 40*C. Be wary though! Software is not a very
accurate way to measure temperatures, or much for that matter. If it seems
unreasonably low (like 20*C idle with the stock cooler, or not breaking 30*C
under full load) then something is wrong, and you’ve basically lost any chance
of software helping you out. For reference, single-core 90nm CPUs tend to have
an idle of around 30*C, and a full load of 40*C at stock settings with the
stock cooler. Dualies, 30*C idle at up to 50*C during dual SP2004s. Always use
the temperature of a 100% loaded CPU when running SP2004 for your maximum
temperature.
Hardware monitoring via probes is the most accurate way, but is however
fundamentally flawed because of placement options. The hot part of a CPU is
covered by a ~1mm thick slab of metal that messes everything up, the IHS.
Putting a probe on this, especially on the sides, will give you a reading not
of the CPU core temperature, but something much cooler. Do not put the probe
between the heatsink and CPU. Just about the only way to get an accurate
reading with probes would be to remove the IHS and put the probe on the side of
the core. I do not suggest this at all. It is extremely risky. At the very
least, remove your IHS for better temperatures, and consider good probe
placement a bonus.

Processor manufacturers employ a number of techniques to improve the performance characteristics of their products. One of the most significant involves shrinking the lithography process used to manufacture processors, thereby reducing power consumption and surface area, resulting in increased production efficiency and increased potential for higher operating frequencies. AMD, using its highly efficient APM (Automated Precision Manufacturing) system, has already taken that critical step from its 130nm SOI (Silicon On Insulator) process to 90nm SOI, enabling the next generation of processors.

Shrinking a Die
Lithography, the printing process used to manufacture processors, is the most important factor in reducing the size of integrated circuits. When a device is said to have been manufactured at 90nm, that number corresponds to the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors’ (ITRS) definition of the minimum metal pitch (the smallest metal lines) used. According to the ITRS, DRAMs continue to employ the small metal pitch and therefore serve as the benchmark for defining process technology. Other technology features, such as transistor gate size, can be significantly smaller than that metal pitch measurement. For example, the
AMD Opteron™ and AMD Athlon™ 64 processors sport gate dimensions of roughly 50nm.

With such minuscule proportions, it’s easier to use millions upon millions of transistors in complex circuits. Those transistors are etched onto silicon, referred to as a die, during a complicated manufacturing process. And so, when new lithography technology debuts, the transistors that comprise an AMD Opteron or AMD Athlon 64 processor contract, reducing the size of the processor die in what’s aptly called a die shrink.

There’s a lot more to a processor die shrink than using new equipment to manufacture smaller transistors. Rather, it’s a delicate balance between replacing some tools, accelerating gate switching speeds, and improving yields. AMD achieves each of these goals in a different way, but the combined effect is a faster, cooler, and more efficient processor.

Of course, reducing a manufacturing process does require machinery capable of printing incredibly small structures. AMD is using a combination of 248nm and 193nm lithography tools, along with resolution enhancement techniques, to etch down to sub-50nm transistor gates. The smaller transistors are able to switch faster and simultaneously draw less power.

90nm transistors occupy less die space than transistors manufactured using a 130nm process, making it easier to add more features to the final product. AMD’s advanced 130nm process facilitated power management through Cool’n’Quiet™ technology, large on-die caches for accelerated performance, and the promise of 64-bit computing through extensions to the x86 ISA. Similarly, 90nm will enable exciting new technologies in the coming months, such as more advanced power management features that will extend battery life and the integration of two processing cores onto a single die to enhance performance.

One of the most prominent issues to overcome in employing 90nm lithography presents itself when transistor interconnects move closer together and current begins leaking through the insulating substrate material. Reducing operating voltages help combat this issue, and are indeed used on 90nm AMD64 processors, but a more effective countermeasure is required. Fortunately, AMD embraced SOI technology in its previous-generation manufacturing process and, after ironing out the complications, was able to apply SOI to its current 90nm efforts.

SOI effectively reduces the capacitive load for each transistor, improving circuit speeds and lowering power consumption, by building transistors on a layer of silicon situated above an insulating oxide layer. Using SOI and low-k dielectric materials, which also help cut back on signal crosstalk and current leakage, AMD sidestepped one of the most daunting roadblocks to achieving high yields at 90nm.

AMD’s 90nm Manufacturing Process
Because its 130nm process was designed with the eventual migration to 90nm in mind, AMD made its transition smoothly, implementing a limited number of modifications to guarantee optimal performance at the new manufacturing node. Like the 130nm process before it, 90nm employs copper interconnects, a Black Diamond low-k dielectric technology, and SOI, which combine to lend the architecture superior thermal characteristics.

Case in point: the AMD Athlon 64 3500+ processor, running at 2.2GHz on the 130nm SOI manufacturing process, employs a nominal voltage of 1.5V. Its maximum thermal design power is 89W and processor current is specified at 57.4A. That same processor, fabricated at 90nm, only needs 1.4V. Thermal design power drops to 67W and its current maxes out at 45.8A. Though thermal density correspondingly increases as the processor die shrinks, that’s to be expected. There aren’t any necessary motherboard revisions and existing cooling solutions work just as well on a 90nm processor as they did before.

AMD Athlon 64 processors centering on the 90nm manufacturing process are already available at retail. However, the transition is still in progress. AMD expects that approximately 50 percent of all eighth-generation wafer starts will be 90nm by the end of 2004. The rapid ramp-up will continue into 2005 across the mobile, desktop, server, and workstation segments. AMD’s current roadmap posits that all processors will be manufactured at 90nm midway through 2005.

One of the most significant factors contributing to AMD’s success with 90nm is APM version 2.0, the automated material processing approach used to maximize both quality and efficiency during manufacturing. Now, automating the way materials move within a Fab is nothing new; APM takes that a step further, though, by also automating the way decisions are made during the process. In short, it enables each tool in the manufacturing line to subtly adjust AMD’s master recipe according to information received from other equipment. The result is optimized yield for every lot of 25 wafers.

Even as AMD focuses attention on ramping up 90nm production, it’s already building another fabrication plant in Dresden, Germany, that will spearhead a push to 65nm manufacturing in 2006. Fab 36, as it is called, will handle 300mm wafers using the third generation of AMD’s APM methodology. APM 3.0 extends the yield control of its predecessor by gathering information about each processor die and adjusting the master recipe on a per-wafer basis. APM 3.0 provides a tighter integration of the process control systems with the other parts of the factory (active scheduling, predictive yield management, automated decision making etc.). The combination of 300mm wafers, 65nm manufacturing, and APM 3.0 promises to maximize manufacturing efficiency.

Until then, AMD will make further enhancements to its 90nm manufacturing process by adding strained silicon, increasing drive current by stretching the silicon atoms that comprise the channel region of each transistor.

Next Up: Dual-Core
The perpetual miniaturization of electronic circuits is certainly enabling exciting new possibilities. Beyond today’s AMD Athlon 64 processor lineup, there is a family of dual-core processors planned that center on the same eighth-generation architecture. The technology has already been publicly demonstrated using an HP ProLiant DL585 server with four physical socket interfaces and 90nm, dual-core, AMD Opteron processors.

AMD’s dual-core processors are being designed with today’s infrastructure in mind. System integrators will have no problem incorporating AMD Opteron processors into existing platforms and any desktop motherboard supporting a 90nm AMD Athlon 64 processor will accommodate dual-core descendants of the chip as well.

The seamlessness of AMD’s dual-core adoption is due to a couple of notable factors. One is 90nm manufacturing, which reduces power consumption to the point that putting two cores on one die is feasible, even though the task requires roughly 205 million transistors. And despite that extra functionality, the die size of a dual-core AMD Opteron processor will resemble its 130nm predecessor.

Another key ingredient is the micro-architecture’s design. AMD Opteron processors already feature the crossbar switch and system request interface needed to arbitrate between two cores. Thus, the addition of another processing core and cache repository is made much more elegant. And because both cores share a memory controller and HyperTransport™ technology resources, the processor’s pin-outs remain consistent with existing interfaces.

Conclusion
AMD’s experience manufacturing 130nm transistors using copper interconnects, SOI, and low-k dielectrics is paying off today in its rapid shift to 90nm. Not only do the 90nm processors boast improved power characteristics, but they are generally regarded as featuring better clock scalability as well. Consequently, AMD is in a strong position moving forward, as its low-power consumption numbers are an encouraging sign for the micro-architecture’s future.

With strained silicon already a part of the AMD Athlon 64 FX-55 processor, you can expect to see AMD making further adjustments to its 90nm process in the months to come, leading up to availability of dual-core processors scheduled for 2005. The completion of Fab 36 will culminate the life of 90nm as AMD shifts gears to 65nm manufacturing and begins tooling up for the eventual adoption of 45nm and beyond.